Pompey :: essays research papers

Pompey the GreatGnaeus Pompeius, better known as Pompey, was born on September 29, 106 BC. He was four twelvemonths older than Julius Caesar. Pompeys father was a rich Roman noble, who was elected to the consul in 89 BC. Pompey distinguished himself as a great take placeer early in his life. In the civil war between Gaius Marius and Lucius Sulla, Pompey sided with Sulla. Sulla, with the help of Pompey, made some vary impressive defeats in Africa and Sicily. In 79 BC Sulla resigned and died the conterminous year. Two of his patrons, who had fought for him, Pompey and Marcus Crassus, moved to leading military positions in the seventies. Crassus and Pompey fought together in a battle against a Marian rebel, Quintus Sertorius, and a slave rebellion lead by Spartacus in Italy. They returned, having won, in 71 BC. Pompey then spent time campaigning successfully in Rome before he was elected to consul, with Marcus Crassus for the year 70 BC.After Pompey served his time on Consul he was g iven command over the Mediterranean, where he did what nobody else had successfully done before. He rid it of Pirates. Pompey, then, went to motley places, establishing an ally of the King of Armenia, capturing Jerusalem, and making Syria a Roman duty. Pompey was a great general, but not a very good politician.In 59 BC Pompey returned to Rome to find that tensions with himself and Crassus had grown. Both Crassus and Pompey had large armies, but also pieces of the city that were loyal to them. Cicero, the leader of the senate, allied himself with Pompey through great flattery. Cicero told Pompey that he must be the protector of the republic. Crassus had other plans, and by 57 BC both men were in Italy with their armies. Before war broke out Julius Caesar stepped in.Caesar being a soggy negotiator used these well-known talents and convinced Pompey, Crassus, and Cicero to meet. The men worked out an agreement. This settlement had never been made before among the leaders of Rome. Caes ar convinced Crassus and Pompey to join their power and bend with his own. Caesar was a successful leader of Gaul at this time. So the three agreed, and formed what is today known as the First Triumvirate. During this time Pompey married, most credibly for political reasons, Julia, Caesars daughter.Two of the three men returned to Rome and forced the Senate to obey them.

Exploration of Values in Robinson Crusoe, Odyssey, Tempest and Gulliver

Exploration of Values in Robinson Crusoe, The Odyssey, The Tempest and Gullivers Travels In the novels and epics of Robinson Crusoe, The Odyssey, The Tempest and Gullivers Travels the reader encounters an adventurer who ends up on an island for many years and then returns back home. These cardinal stories have another point in common they are all unusually popular. There is mostthing actually appealing to the popular imagination about such narratives. In this essay I will explore the vision of life (or at least or so aspects of it) which this novel holds out to us and which is significantly different from the others, no matter how apparently similar the narrative form might be. Very simply put, these four stories have a similar general narrative structure which goes something like this (a) a member of a sophisticated European golf-club is accidentally guide adrift into the wilderness, where everything is unfamiliar and there are no apparent aids of normal troupe (b) the hero must adjust to this strange environment, find some means of coping with the physical and the psychological dislocation (c) the hero must find a way off the island, and (d) the hero must reintegrate himself into the society from which he unwillingly was alienated. The casting adrift can happen in any number of ways. Typically it is the result of a shipwreck, a mutiny, or a misadventure of some kind. Adapting to the new environment may or may not involve adjusting to the people who live there. It almost always will gather up the hero to cope with a very different vision of nature, and he will be forced to confront the fact that in this place things comport very differently from what he is used to. This, in turn, may produce al... ...t what really matters and what does not. Thus, adventures with isolatos are, or can easily become, an exploration of moral values forced into the awareness of the hero by an unusual circumstance. And this development brings with it inevitably a cri ticism or a confirmation of the social values (or some of them) of the society of which he is a representative, whose values he brings with him to the island, and to which he returns. Prosperos rejection of the island and of the magic he so loves, like Odysseus rejection of Calypso for his own Penelope, is not just a manifestation of the heros moral nature it is also a confirmation of certain values in the society to which they are returning. Gullivers rejection of European society upon his return at the end of the fourth voyage is, in large part, a very severe criticism of the moral laxity of Europe.

MBA Admissions Essays - Major Accomplishments -- MBA College Admission

I had practiced it before, but this time it was for real. Well, as real as a college mock trial tournament can get. I objected, pointed, and did squat thrusts during 10-minute breaks. During the trial, I paused for a few seconds of silence and methodically tied up the loose ends of my conclusion monologue. My mock trial team sat quietly for a couple of minutes until the judges offered some feedback and tabulated the scores. Unfortunately, we lost in a landslide and would not be moving on to the final round of competition. Before our team departed from Ithaca, however, we still had to sit through closing ceremonies, where team and individual awards would be distributed. We arrived to the function with our head between our tales, but when they read the award for best mock trial attorney, my name was called. I was shocked and utterly ecstatic. I was tear down surprised that it wasnt a run of the mill paper award I had won, but actually a wooden plaque with some official expression ca rvings. It wasnt an Academy award or Nobel Prize, but for someone who had practiced relentlessly for months, it su...

Wicca Essays -- essays research papers

Wicca/WitchcraftWicca is an Old English word that means The Wise Ones or Keepers of Knowledge. Wicca is one of the near ancient followings. Wicca is a Neo-Pagan following with many customss that date to pre-Christian times. It is based on a deep respect for nature and the knowledge that we should not exploit it for our sustain gain. Wicca is not recognized as a religion by anyone other than its followers. Wicca is not a cult. Many Wiccans are independent and worship on their proclaim or with a group of Wiccans, but they do not follow any one person. There are many types of Wicca, as many as 13 different traditions have been founded. One of the oldest unchanged traditions is the Strega Witchcraft. A witch named Aradia founded this tradition about 1353 CE. Two other large traditions include Gardnerian and Celtic forms. The Gardnerian tradition is based on the works of Dr. Gerald Brosseau Gardner. He researched much of the history of witchcraft and wrote The Book of Shadows with t hat knowledge. The Book of Shadows is used as the basis for ritual practice in the Gardnerian tradition. The Celtic Wicca is also a very old form. It is based on Celtic/Druidic practices and uses many of the Celtic deities, elements, and nature. Wiccans believe that both animate and inanimate objects possess a spirit, which forms part of the Whole, or The Cosmic Web. The term spirit does not mean ghost, it means that which links something to nature so that it is rec...

Utah Family Center :: essays research papers

We chose to learn about, evaluate and present the Utah Family Center. The goals of this paper be to explain the logistics of the program, to tie together what we learned with Epsteins Framework, to describe the modality and those who typically utilize the center, and include some final concluding thoughts about the center. As a group, we referred to the Utah Family Center website, we visited and walked thru the center, and we talked to great lengths with the personnel. We were able to take pamphlets and we took digital pictures of the center to utilize in our group presentation. We worked together to write this report about the Utah Family Center. LOGISTICSThe Utah Family Center is located at 5192 Greenpine Drive (460 West) in Salt Lake City, Utah in the 84123 zip code. The telephone number is (801) 266-6166. The hours and days of operation be 900AM until 400PM Monday thru Friday. When special classes are offered, they are ordinarily on Tuesday and Thursday evenings from 630PM u ntil 830PM. When one particular class is offered, it is on Saturdays. Their website is www.utahfamilycenter.org, and their e-mail address is infoutahfamilycenter.org. The Utah Family Center started vitiated plainly increased in size once they received confess funding six years ago, and with the help of the PTA and the Utah Department of Education.They share office quadruplet with the Utah PTA Headquarters. This particular location is the statewide administrative center, and there are different branches of the Utah Family Center that they refer to as satellite centers. There are nine satellite centers, and they are located in Logan, Price, Kaysville, Monument Valley, downtown Salt Lake City, Tooele, Provo, St. George, and Ogden, Utah. The satellite centers range in size depending on the area they are in, as well as the times they are open. The statewide administrative center is equipped with a large boardroom upstairs (seats 40) and a small one downstairs (seats about 12). The st affing consists of the Director, Barbara Smith, her secretary, a financial advisor, a counselor, other assistants, workshop teachers, and numerous PAT (Parents as Teachers). The Director manages the center. The classes are directed by nationally certified trainers.The Utah Family Center is funded through repeated PIRC (Parent Information & Resource Centers) grants from the United States Department of Education Office of Innovation & Improvement. A PIRC grant is based on helping low performing schools that struggle, with the No Child Left Behind concept a main focus.

Utah Family Center :: essays research papers

We chose to learn about, evaluate and present the Utah Family concentrate. The goals of this paper atomic number 18 to explain the logistics of the program, to tie together what we learned with Epsteins Framework, to describe the climate and those who typically utilize the center, and include some final concluding thoughts about the center. As a group, we referred to the Utah Family Center website, we visited and walked thru the center, and we talked to great lengths with the personnel. We were suitable to take pamphlets and we took digital pictures of the center to utilize in our group presentation. We worked together to write this report about the Utah Family Center. LOGISTICSThe Utah Family Center is located at 5192 Greenpine Drive (460 West) in Salt Lake City, Utah in the 84123 zip code. The telephone number is (801) 266-6166. The hours and days of operation are 900AM until 400PM Monday thru Friday. When special classes are offered, they are usually on Tuesday and Thursday e venings from 630PM until 830PM. When one particular class is offered, it is on Saturdays. Their website is www.utahfamilycenter.org, and their e-mail address is infoutahfamilycenter.org. The Utah Family Center started small but increased in size once they received grant funding six years ago, and with the help of the PTA and the Utah Department of Education.They grant office space with the Utah PTA Headquarters. This particular location is the statewide administrative center, and there are different branches of the Utah Family Center that they refer to as planet centers. There are nine satellite centers, and they are located in Logan, Price, Kaysville, Monument Valley, downtown Salt Lake City, Tooele, Provo, St. George, and Ogden, Utah. The satellite centers range in size depending on the area they are in, as well as the times they are open. The statewide administrative center is equipped with a large boardroom on a higher floor (seats 40) and a small one downstairs (seats about 1 2). The staffing consists of the Director, Barbara Smith, her secretary, a financial advisor, a counselor, other assistants, workshop teachers, and numerous PAT (Parents as Teachers). The Director manages the center. The classes are directed by nationally certified trainers.The Utah Family Center is funded through repeated PIRC (Parent Information & Resource Centers) grants from the United States Department of Education Office of fundament & Improvement. A PIRC grant is based on helping low performing schools that struggle, with the No Child Left Behind concept a main focus.

Comparing and Contrasting Machiavelli’s Ideas

Question Two Word Count 1000 Karl Marx and Niccolo Machiavelli ar interested in two completely different forms of government. Yet both philosophers partake many of the same key terms. They both understand the power and importance of deceit, and how it is gained. They also are equ onlyy opinionated when it comes to the subject of seat and money. This essay will seek to explain, compare, and contrast Machiavellis ideas on power with Karl Marxs ideas on Money. Marx believes that money has a misused transformative power in cautious society, one which he argues, that we are currently subjected to.He claims that, Money is the pimp between mans need and the object, between his life and his means of life. But that which mediates my life for me, also mediates the creation of other people for me. (page 136 Economic And Philosophic Manuscripts) Here he is saying that in this peculiar political economy, money is the only universal means of actualizing the call for and means of life for ma n. Money is so eminent and necessary that it not only mediates if or when your needs are meant, but it influences the flair you see others and the way others see you.Marx goes on to say, That which is for me through the medium of money-that for which I can pay-that am I, the possessor of the money. (page 137 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts) Basically money has the touched assemble of creating an authentic mirage of someone through its buying power. Marx goes on to list ways in which money can nullify natural deficiencies of a certain person, and indeed contrary to human nature. Throughout the rest of the passage, The Power of Money in Bourgeois Society, Marx cites similar examples that all lead to the conclusion that money is the general discombobulate and compounding of all things. (page 140 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts) That is to say, the ability of money to act on all natural and human qualities in two ill-matched ways, that is compounding and confounding, is a bad things. It causes friction and complacency at the same time, which is unnatural. Marx wishes to rid us of the use of money and its effects in a Bourgeois Society because it is wholly unnatural, deceitful, and abandons people to have disingenuous characteristics. Niccolo Machiavelli knows the importance of deceit to the ruling class too.Machiavelli says It is not essential, then, that a Prince should have all the good qualities which I have enumerated above, but it is most essential that he should seem to have them, (page 46 The Prince) because men in general judge rather by the heart and soul than the hand. (page 47 The Prince) To Marx, money allows this type of transformative deception however, to Machiavelli this ability seems to be more of a character trait. Machiavelli says this can be achieved by appearing to be the conformation of mercy, good faith, integrity, humanity, and religion. (page 47 The Prince) The first four characteristics, he says are the least importan t when compared to the last. Appearing religious is achievable by being complacent to the Catholic Church and wearing the cloak of religion, according to Machiavelli. This cloak of religion allows pious cruelty, and with his cloak a prince appears justified in his actions, no social function how cruel. (page 59 The Prince). Marx also knows the power of religion to quell the lower class, as the cliche goes, Religion is the opium of the people. (Lecture Notes 3/6/13) Religion keeps the poor pacified because they are living(a) for a better afterlife. They are also willing to blindly follow religious/political leaders in order not to obscure these chances. some(prenominal) philosophers understand that money and religion can be deceptive. Machiavelli wishes to utilize this power in accord with dishonest characteristics to keep his subjects pacified. Marx wishes to point out this most unnatural power and free the Proletariat from its grasp.Niccolo Machiavelli also understands the power of money, when it comes to the conservation of power. Both political philosophers agree that the best government should not be rapacious. This perceived contract is actually in stark contrast. Machiavelli believes that a prince should not, burden his subjects with extraordinary taxes, and to resort to confiscations and all the other shifts whereby money is raised, (page 41 The Prince) because rapacity breeds hate as well as ignominy. (page 42 The Prince) To avoid this type of public condemnation Machiavelli proposes that a prince should be surreptitiously miserly and avoid interfering with the property of his subjects, than in any other way. (page 47 The Prince) Machiavelli is saying that the less a prince interferes with his subjects money and property, the more likely his reign will succeed. As I have said, Karl Marx disagrees with Machiavellis ideas on what the best government should be restrictive of. In the first two measures of the Manifesto of theCommunist Party Frederick Engels and Marx state that one, Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes, and two, A heavy progressive or graduated income tax, (page 230 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts) are key for a successful revolution of the Proletariat. These measures, along with the other eights purpose, is to rid society of class distinction. Marx wishes to rid society of private property, under the Bourgeoisies power, because it is the product of class antagonism, and the realization of alienated labor by an alienated man. (page 81 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts) The heavy progressive taxes would work to equalize all income. These measures set out by Marx may seem clutching, but they are only meant to restrict the power of the Bourgeoisie. Marxs perfect form of government would allow workers to keep the product of their labor, that is the objectification of their labor, instead of it being appropriated by the Bourgeoisie, which ultimately leads to the alienation of the laborer from the world, himself, and fellow man. Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts pages 71-72) So Marxs communism is rapacious, but only in the interest of preventing unjust rapacity by the Bourgeoisie. Marxs measures are in obvious conflict with Machiavelli because of the two philosophers resource and understanding of government. Machiavelli wishes to appease his subjects to a certain extent, whereas, Marx wants the subjugated proletariat to become a public power without political character. But they both do not want anybody grabbing, what they respectively perceive, as someone elses.They also understand the power and importance of deceit, although they have somewhat different ideas on how it is achieved. Machiavelli and Marx comparatively are on the opposite side of the coin. Marx represents the suppressed proletariat and wishes to free them. Machiavelli is advising Princes on how to pacify his subjects. These differences are irreconcilable, but hopefully this paper has clearly explained each philosophers arguments and disposed a better idea of how they might be compared.

Rhetorical Analysis of “How to Tame a Wild Tongue” Essay

Being proud of ones culture and language is often times lost when immigrating to a new country. Although criticized and attacked for her culture, Gloria Anzaldua describes in How to Tame a Wild Tongue that she refuses to let others force her to reject her culture for the sake of belonging and informs Americans and Latinos attempting to suppress Chicano culture specifically that she will persevere through the hardship to keep her identity alive and thriving. Anzaldua calls her readers to understand that the Chicano language and heritage should be recognized and that they be identified as a distinct people that they are more than nothing. Anzaldua begins with engaging the reader by providing a personal experience of when she was sent to the corner of the classroom for talk back to her teacher when her intention was just to tell the teacher how to pronounce her name (374). In her second section Overcoming the Tradition of Silence (374), Anzaldua adds internal abet on the culture of th e Chicano and the barriers of her language, supporting her credibility and supporting ethos with another personal account.She displays these different scenarios from her point of view, showing her audience what it feels like to live through these situations as a Chicano. Switching back and forth from English to Spanish, Anzaldua cleverly uses this form of diction to establish ethos with the reader. She puts the reader somewhat in her shoes when growing up in America, not knowing every English word she was read or heard. It makes the reader feel rather awkward or embarrassed for not knowing what the Spanish words mean. Another form of ethos is present when she states, If you really want to hurt me, talk badly about my language (378).Anzaldua uses ethos again to essay that what people value highly, their language, is what she values sincerely, claiming I am my language (378). Anzaldua establishes logos by enlightening us as to why Chicano Spanish is different from tired Spanish, exp laining that the significant differences in the Spanish Chicanos speak developed after 250 years of Spanish/Anglocolonization (376). She again uses logic in determining that even though by the end of this century Spanish speakers will embody the largest minority group in the U.S, English will be the mother tongue of Chicanos and Latinos receivable to the fierce influence of the degradation of the use of Spanish (378).Works CitedAnzaldua, Gloria. How to Tame a Wild Tongue From Inquiry to Academic Writing A textual matter and Reader. 2nd ed. Ed. Stuart Green and April Lidinsky. Boston Bedford/ St. Martins, 2012. 322-36. Print. Documentation Statement I received no help on this assignment.

Management styles Essay

There are two main data resources, secondary and primary data. Secondary data is the one that already exists from previous investigations and it can be found in books, journals and films (Sa on a lower floors at al, 2003). Primary data is the one that is re stash away from the look and it can be obtained by using methods much(prenominal) as questionnaires, interviews, focus group, and other (Collis and Hussey, 2003). In differentiate to achieve the aim and objectives of this research, both data collection methods entrust be used. The secondary data result be mostly used to define and examine the concepts of multicultural bring inforce and management styles.On the other hand, the primary data result be collected from the interviews done to carriages and supervisors in order to obtain their experiences of working with people from different cultural background and whether it influences on management styles. In this case, it will be substantial and relevant for this research to review studies of cross-cultural differences such as Hofstedes, Trompenaars and Hall and Halls, in order to compare their findings with the ones that come up from this investigation.Moreover, it will be fundamental to identify the main aspects of cultural differences that influences on management styles in order to have a better knowledge of this subject and understand wherefore peoples behavior change from one culture to another. Consequently, secondary data on its own is insufficient for the investigation and exploration of this study for this actor the use of primary data helps to add and enrich information to that existent background on cultural differences and management styles. Primary DataTaking into figure the already proposed sample characteristics, interviews will be considered to be the most appropriate data collection technique due to the exploratory and analytical research constitution of this investigation. It involves to a greater extent interaction by questioning and discussion between the interviewee and the interviewer that is something it can not be obtained using, for example, questionnaires and observation (Blaxter et al. , 2001). The interviews will be conducted in order to explore and discover participants attitudes, opinions and experiences toward cultural differences and its influence on their management style. InterviewsAccording to Collis and Hussey (2003), interviews are a method of collecting data in which selected participants are asked questions in order to find out what they do, think or feel. Saunders et al. (2003) propose the idea that this method is an efficient way of collecting reliable and valid information, because the data equanimous comes directly from the source in study, which certainly helps to achieve the research question and objectives of this project. Therefore, choosing interviews will be establish on its suitability in finding what is misfortune and seeking new sights when exploring management styles and cultural differences.Moreover, Saunders et al (2003) stress that a more complete gathering of valuable information can be obtained by interacting more people inside an organizations, which in this case are members of ABC Superstore in the U. S. Interviews are classified based on the degree of flexibility as well as formality and structure that the researcher would like to apply. Therefore, there are three guinea pigs of interviews, structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews (Kumar, 1999 Saunders et al. , 2000 Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2002).In the structured interview the investigator asks a pre-determined set of questions, using the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule (Kumar, 1999, p. 109) in semi-structured interview, the questions are also prepared beforehand, plainly in contrast, they offer more flexibility in facilitating the interviewee to modify the questions to investigate new ideas that might come up during the interview and the unstructured interviews are based on a general topic of interest, but the questions are spontaneously posed to the respondent (Kumar, 1999 Guillham, 2000 Saunders et al. , 2000 Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2002).It has been suggested that for phenomenological approaches and exploratory researches, a semi-structure interview is the most suitable type since the interviewer can explore in-depth a specific area that might be of interest (Jankowicz, 1999). The interviews carried out for this research will be semi-structured and will be held opposite with individual participants.One of the reasons of choosing this type of interview is because they are more conductible and easier to control in order to establish and maintain empathy with respondents, so make the respondents be more comfortable and express their opinions more freely. It also gives the interviewer the opportunity to discover and understand the respondents points of view and beliefs about a specific situation (Zikmund, 2000). Sa unders et al.(2000) mention that semi-structured are qualitative research interviews and are classified as non-standardized, where questions might vary from one interview to another since it depends on the course that the conversation takes, hence it would required of extra questions. In addition, Healey and Rawlinson (1994 cited Saunders et al. , 2000) point out that more than one type can be used at heart an interview, where one subsection may ask genuine closed questions, such as personal details, and the next sections could explore more qualitative issues.In this case, a combination of styles will be adopted within the interviews that will be held. The first section will be consisted of a set of factual questions in order to find out the interviewees work position and background. The following sections will be based on qualitative responses where relevant topics will be taken under consideration accordingly to the publications review that will be developed in Chapter II as well as aim and objectives of the research.For instance, in the second section, cultural aspects within a multicultural workforce will be explored, while in the third section, examination of managerial skills will be enquired and finally exploration of training programs will end the interview (Appendix B). Furthermore, the semi-structured interviews will allow a free-flowing discussion, which in turn will produce a better understanding of the way of thinking, opinions, and behavior of manager and supervisors in relation to their experiences towards differences in culture and its influence on their management styles.Data Quality Issues There are a number of data persona issues to be aware and consider when conducting an interview, otherwise it would put at risk the findings of the investigation. In this case information supplied to the interviewee, confidentiality, listening skills and recording of interviews is going to be considered for this section (Kvale, 1996 Saunders et al. , 2000). Information Supplied to the Interviewee An important issue to promote credibility to the investigation is the supply of relevant information to the participants prior the interviews.In this way, the interviewee will consider the information under study and will be prepared to discuss their experiences and opinions, which will help to develop the research credibility. This will be reached through a letter that will be sent to the participants, which can be seen in Appendix A. It will also mention the duration of the interviews, in order to let them organized their term and provide an approximately 30 minutes to the interview with no interruptions.Confidentiality According to Kvale (1996, p. 114) confidentiality in research implies that private data identifying the subjects will not be describe. The author also highlights that the change of names to protect the privacy of the participants is of an important issue, since encourages people to reveal experiences, feelings and fa cts which enrich the information given by the interviewee, facilitating the development of the research (Kvale, 1996 Guillham, 2000). Hence, it will be explained to the interviewee the purpose of the research and the use that it is going to have in order to gain their trust and confidence (Appendix A).

Why Does Conflict Arise in Organizations

Why does date arise in organizations, and how it bath be managed ABSTRACT This essay checkks to illustrate how organisational departure can non be voided. It impart try out the variant ways in which divergence whitethorn arise at heart organizations and classify them into a setting of groups. There will be a arrant(a) analysis to show if counterpoint is positive or negative towards the growth of an organization. Findings of the previous will then lead to different mechanisms that can be utilize when managing skirmish to ensure positive outcomes in an organization.The same will be supported by relevant theories, which will assist in reinforcing the validity of this essay. substructure In this era of rapid development organizations are formed as a cordial entity to foster an environment of financial, economical and social growth. Organizations can range from large g everywherenmental bodies to small business. Organizations check evolved through different stages, f rom its birth to maturity. During these stages organizations tend to be adversely affected by crisis of leadership, autonomy, control and bureaucracy.Consequently these crises sack up troth unavoidable. Additionally, an organization may be exemplified where two or more individual establish a relationship in coif to accomplish and hear a desired goal. There are various schools of thought as it pertains to mesh including the Traditional estimate, Human Relations follow and the Interactionist View. More so conflict exists at different levels namely Intrapersonal, interpersonal and Intergroup. However there may be some techniques available to manage conflict like Negotiation, Mediation, Arbitration, Conciliation and Consultancy.The next paragraphs will further explain the scopes of conflict and how it can be managed. CONFLICT It is a touch that begins when one part perceives that an otherwise political party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, somet hing that the first part cares about. 1 An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals, which controls its knowledge performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its environment. 2 Schools of thoughts with regards to conflict The Traditional ViewThis view was prevalent in the the 1930s and 40s where it was conceived that the existence of conflict can only be harmful to the growth of an organization. Therefore in that era conflict should have been avoided, this resulted in less focus to research on the ca economic consumptions of conflict. The Human Relations View The human relations position pioneered that conflict was inevitable in all groups and organizations. It could never be eliminated and it in addition some quantify proves to be beneficial to a groups performance. This was dominant in the young(a) 40s and mid 70s. The Interactionist ViewThis view encourages the existence of conflict at an ongoing minimum level, enough to keep the group viable, hypercritical and creative. After looking at the above views it will not be feasible to say that conflict is good or bad. It can only be analyzed as bad or good based on the token of conflict. (The schools of thoughts were taken from Stephen Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, 10th ed. 2003) Functional Interactionist view does not see all conflict as good but those conflicts that supports the goals and improves performance is called functional conflict or constructive conflict.Dysfunctional On the other hand conflict that is dysfunctional relates to the conflict that promotes alienation, inefficiency and generally has adverse effects on productivity. To know if a conflict is either functional or dysfunctional, the causes must be kn throw. fibres of contravene Task participation- this relates to the content and goals of the task that is to be performed, Relationship Conflict- this focus on interpersonal relationships, and cognitive operation Conflict- this relates to ho w the task gets through. Studies show that Relationship conflict most of the times turns out to be dysfunctional.Task, relationship or process can perpetrated in the following ways Intrapersonal Conflict occurs within us when we are at odds with ourselves, when we are torn mingled with choices we need to gull, when we are frustrated with our goals or accomplishments. Conflict within us very often leads to conflict with others. Interpersonal Conflict occurs between two or more individuals. We might get into a heated debate in a meeting, get in an argument with a coworker, or have a bad encounter with our boss. This is the type of conflict we are most concerned with in this workshop, although our discussion has bearing on the other types.Intergroup Conflict occurs between groups nations, gangs, work areas, etc. For example, your department at work might have an us vs. them attitude about some other department. Intra/ Interpersonal and Intergroup was taken from a Business get outme nt skills article from Dave Neal found on http//www. scarecrowworkshops. com/b-conflict-management. html The Process of Conflict diagram will help illustrate wherefore conflict arise in organizations, this was taken from Stephen Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, 10th ed. 2003 pic put 1 shows some of the conditions that has the capacity to develop conflict A break stack in communication is significant in contributing to conflict . The true sense of communication is for the receiving party to understand what the sender is communicating in order to attain the right feedback. The bereaucratic nature of an organization facilitate the process of unsuccessful communication. This is so as information passed on to places may be prone to deterioration. This may be so as the subordinate or receiver may not attach the urgency of the message that the sender intended.As such, this reluctance may cause the final message or information to be significantly ambiguous, which would result in confli ct. Additionally, another source of conflict is structural factors as it pertains to size, cater Heterogeneity, Participation, Line-Staff distinction, Reward Systems, Resource Interdependence and Power. In terms of size an organzation tend to operate more effciently and with less conflict when it is small. The manger has more direct fix in the union in terms of supervision and the overseeing of delegated tasks.However where the company grows in size the reins of controll are strained. There may now be change magnitude specialization and bereaucracy. Consequently there may be increased opportunity to for misconception of information and hence conflict. For example, an interview was done at a renowned company, WASA in Trinidad and Tobago. The manager of the Construction Services Department North is responsible for various pipe laying projects therefore it is mandatory for him to retrieve materials for the various projects.The retrieval of these materials does not lie in his hands, thoroughly, but this function is mainly dependent on the Manager of Corporate Services-Supplies to source the right provider of the materials. This process of sourcing these materials may be long at times therefore putting the pipe laying projects sometimes on long delays. Consequently there is the possibility of having conflict between these two managers but note carefully that the structure of certain procedures within the organization is the main cause for the conflict.The issue of staff heterogeneity appears to have an adverse effect as it pertains to conflict. There are many issues which may arise due to differences in staff. For instance the junior staff in a company may feel that the senior staff may be too inflexible. They generally wield more power in organizations and junior staff may be subjected to their redundancy and myopic work approach. Thus conflict may tend to arise. Moreso, Partcipation, in terms of decision making, is a source for conflict. A subordinate may nee d to be able to express their opinions. Where employees re given a forum to express their decision making opinons it may be noteworthy that conflict is more likely to occur. According to Robbins, an atmosphere of conflict may be created as the employee is unable to prevail with his point of view due to his deficiency of authority. Futhermore According to Allen 1955, line and staff distinctions may be another cause for conflict. It may be noted that Line units perform tasks that are directly tie in to the core activities of the organization. However, staff units perform tasks that support the line function. This definition was taken from the book Organizational Behavior by K.W. Thomas. This may be exemplified in the aforementioned WASA scenario where a line unit member involved in the installation of pipe was hampered in carrying out his task. This may result in conflict as the staff unit may be removed and not place as much emphasis on the centralized operations of the company as a line member. It may be also noted that conflict may arise in terms of reward systems. This refers to the fact that one party may receive a reward at the expense of the other. As such conflict would tend to arise. and that i Personal Variables, this is basically personality differences.An substantial factor is found in stage 2 due to the fact that the antecedents of conflict must be perceived or felt. This is so because all the possibilities in stage 1 could occur but the feelings associated with stage 2 may not necessarily transpire. Further observation of the above diagram with regards to stage 3, which are techniques to handle conflict can also encourage conflict, for instance competing (this speaks for itself) and also avoiding due to the fact that the matter is never resolved leaving the parties unsatisfied and also no growth was made towards achieving the organizations goals.In Addition stage 4 can also promote conflict depending on what happened in the previous stage. If t he conflict handling techniques (stage3) was destructive then behaviours (stage 4) may be verbal attacks, threats and ultimatums, aggressive corporeal attacks or overt efforts to terminate the other party. Therefore it can be analyzed that stage 3 can also initiate more conflict. There are other major fields of study within organizational behaviour that can be a recipe for conflict. Some of these are as follows.Job Satisfaction- Job satisfaction is an integral aspect in organizational conflict. The employee needs to feel truly a part of the company and that his contribution is instrumental to the companys progress. He must also feel challenged by his work load and not bogged down by mundane and alienating tasks. Personalities and senses- (express on this factor and mention the following in the right context) there is the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (a test of 100 questions that asks people how they react to a certain situation and then this break down into sixteen personality typ es. 3 Leadership skills- this is where studies were done analyzing the type of employees to see what type of leadership skill will be best suited in order to facilitate an ambiance of little conflict/ functional conflict thus enhancing the organizations performance. Hersey and Blanchards situational theory reiterate this. In other terms if a manager does not have the right type of leadership skills to suit his staff conflict can occur. Organizational Change- if change is not accepted this can cause conflict curiously if this change affects the culture of an organization.For example, a technology change may cause conflict if workers perceive they are not ready to handle it. (use other examples) Techniques to Manage Conflict Conflict may be managed If conflicts results in destructive outcomes then it must be managed. The various ways of managing conflict are Negotiation- this is a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rat e for them. 4 Mediator- A neutral third base gear party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives.Arbitrator- this involves a third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement. Conciliator- A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent. Consultant- an impartial third party, skilled in conflict management, who attempts to facilitate creative problem lick through communication and analysis. The definition s of the former four was taken from Organizational Behaviour, Stephen Robbins, 2003.Also the positive ways of handling conflict (stage3 of the diagram) Collaborate, Compromise and make (expand on these points) Other ways are Superordinate goals this is creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the working together of the conflicting groups. Smoothing- de-emphasizing on differences dapple looking at the common interest. Beh avioural Change techniques can be used to alter personality. morphological Change Techniques can be used to avoid interactions between the conflicting groups Conclusion In conclusion conflict in an organization is inevitable.In essence, in the 1930s and 40s the Traditional View enveloped that all conflict as destructive and hence should be avoided at all cost. Additionally conflict is unavoidable in all organizations and it can never be eliminated. It has been proposed that conflict may also be advantageous to a groups performance. The aforementioned denoted the Human Relations View which was prevalent among the late 1940s and mid 1970s. Moreover, the interactionist view states that a minimal level of conflict is necessary for the stimulation of creativity.Furthermore conflict can operate on various levels namely Interpersonal, Intrapersonal and Intergroup. It is caused mainly through communication, structural and personal behaviour factors. Communication factors pertain to the dis tortion of information along the communication line. Structural factors that lead to conflict may include size, staff heterogeneity, participation, line staff distinctions, Reward systems, Resource Interdependence and Power. Bibliography The following was taken from http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Conflict and can be redone from an organizational horizonConflict is a state of opposition, disagreement or incompatibility between two or more people or groups of people, which is sometimes characterized by physical violence. Military conflict between states may constitute war. edit Definitions In political terms, conflict refers to an ongoing state of hostility between two or more groups of people. Conflict as taught for graduate and professional work in conflict resolution commonly has the definition when two or more parties, with perceived mutually exclusive goals, seek to undermine each others goal-seeking capability.One should not confuse the distinction between the presence and abse nce of conflict with the difference between opposition and co-operation. In competitive situations, the two or more parties each have mutually inconsistent goals, so that when either party tries to reach their goal it will undermine the attempts of the other to reach theirs. Therefore, competitive situations will by their nature cause conflict. However, conflict can also occur in cooperative situations, in which two or more parties have consistent goals, because the manner in which one party tries to reach their goal can still undermine the other.A clash of interests, values, actions or directions often sparks a conflict. Conflicts refer to the existence of that clash. Psychologically, a conflict exists when the reduction of one motivating stimulus involves an increase in another, so that a new adjustment is demanded. The word is applicable from the instant that the clash occurs. Even when we say that there is a potential conflict we are implying that there is already a conflict of direction even though a clash may not yet have occurred. edit Types and Modes of ConflictA conceptual conflict can escalate into a verbal exchange and/or result in fighting. Conflict can exist at a chassis of levels of analysis intrapersonal conflict (though this unremarkably just gets delegated out to psychology) interpersonal conflict stirred conflict group conflict organizational conflict community conflict intra-state conflict (for example civil wars, election campaigns) international conflict environmental resources conflict intersocietal conflict intra-societal conflict ideological conflict diplomatic conflict economic conflict military conflict religious-based conflict (for example Center For Reduction of Religious-Based Conflict) Conflicts in these levels may appear nested in conflicts residing at larger levels of analysis. For example, conflict within a work team may play out the dynamics of a broader conflict in the organization as a whole. ( perceive Ma rie Dugans article on Nested Conflict. John Paul Lederach has also written on this. ) Theorists have claimed that parties can conceptualise responses to conflict according to a two-dimensional scheme concern for ones own outcomes and concern for the outcomes of the other party.This scheme leads to the following hypotheses High concern for both ones own and the other partys outcomes leads to attempts to find mutually beneficial solutions. High concern for ones own outcomes only leads to attempts to win the conflict. High concern for the other partys outcomes only leads to allowing the other to win the conflict. No concern for either sides outcomes leads to attempts to avoid the conflict. In Western society, practitioners usually suggest that attempts to find mutually beneficial solutions lead to the most satisfactory outcomes, but this may not hold true for many Asian societies.several(prenominal) theorists detect successive phases in the development of conflicts. Often a group f inds itself in conflict over facts, goals, methods or values. It is critical that it properly identify the type of conflict it is experiencing if it hopes to manage the conflict through to resolution. For example, a group will often treat an assumption as a fact. The more difficult type of conflict is when values are the root cause. It is more likely that a conflict over facts, or assumptions, will be resolved than one over values. It is extremely difficult to prove that a value is right or correct.In some instances, a group will benefit from the use of a facilitator or process consultant to help identify the specific type of conflict. Practitioners of nonviolence have developed many practices to solve social and political conflicts without resorting to violence or coercion. edit Examples Approach-avoidance conflict is an example of intrapersonal conflict. The Vietnam Conflict is commonly regarded as a war. The Arab-Israeli conflict forms a historic and ongoing conflict between I srael and Arab interests. See also Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Catholic-Protestant conflict in Northern Ireland furnishes an example of another notable historic conflict. For information on the conflict, see the Troubles, Bloody Sunday (Northern Ireland 1972), the 1974 Dublin and Monaghan Bombings and the 1998 Omagh bombing. umteen conflicts have a supposedly racial or ethnic basis. This would include such conflicts as the Bosnian-Croatian conflict (see Kosovo), the conflict in Rwanda. Class conflict forms an outstanding topic in much Marxist thought. Another type of conflict exists between governments and guerrilla groups or groups engaged in asymmetric warfare. = edit Causes of Conflict Structural Factors (How the company is set up) Specialization (The experts in fields) Interdependance (A company as a whole cant operate w/o other departments) Common Resources (Sharing the same secretary) finis Differences (One person wants production to rise and others want commun ication to rise) Authority Relationships (The boss and employees beneath him/her) Status Inconsistencies Jurisdicational Ambiguities (Who can discipline who) Personal Factors Skills and Abilities Personalities Perception Values and moral philosophy Emotions Communication barriers Cultural Differences Conflict is an emotionally defined and driven, and does not exist in the absence of emotion. There are many components to the emotions that are intertwined with conflict. There is a behavioral, physiological, cognitive component. Behavioral- The way emotional experience gets expressed which can be verbal or non-verbal and intentional or un-intentional. Physiological- The bodily experience of emotion. The way emotions make us feel in comparison to our identity. Cognitive- The idea that we assess or appraise an event to reveal its relevancy to ourselves. These three components collectively advise that the meanings of emotional experience and expression are determined by cultu ral values, beliefs, and practices. Cultural values- culture tells people who are a part of it, Which emotions ought to be expressed in particular situations and what emotions are to be felt. Physical- This escalation results from anger or frustration. Verbal- This escalation results from negative perceptions of the annoyers character. There are several principles of conflict and emotion. 1. Conflict is emotionally Defined-conflict involves emotion because something triggers it. The conflict is with the parties involved and how they decide to resolve it Events that trigger conflict are events that elicit emotion. 2. Conflict is emotionally Valenced- Emotion levels during conflict can be terrible or less intense. The intensity levels may be indicative of the importance and meaning of the conflict issues for each party. 3. Conflict Invokes a Moral Stance- When an event occurs it can be interpreted as moral or immoral.The judging of this morality Influences ones orientation to the conflict, relationship to the parties involved, and the conflict issues. 4. Conflict is identity element based- Emotions and Identity are a part of conflict. When a person knows there values, beliefs, and morals they are able to determine whether the conflict is personal, relevant, and moral. Identity related conflicts are potentially more destructive. 5. Conflict is Relational- conflict is relational in the sense that emotional communication conveys relational definitions that impact conflict. Key relational elements are power and social status. Emotions are acceptable in the workplace as long as they can be controlled and utilized for productive organizational outcomes. Bibliography 1 K. W. Thomas, Conflict and Negotiation Process in Organizations, in Dunnette and Hough (eds. ), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2ne ed. , vol. 3, 1992 2 http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Organization 3 R. R Mc Crae and T. Costa, Reinterpreting the Myers- Briggs Type in dicator from the perspective of the five factor model of personality, ledger of Personality, March 1989 4 J.A. Wall, Jr. , Negotiation Theory and Practice, 1985 Antecedent Conditions Communication Structure Personal Variables Perceived Conflict Felt Conflict Conflict Handling Intentions Competing Collaborating conciliative Avoiding Accommodating Overt Conflict Partys Behaviour Others Reaction Increased Group action Decreased Group Performance Stage 1 Potential Opposition or Incompatibility Stage 2 Cognition and Personalization Stage 3 Intentions Stage 4 Behaviour Stage 5 Outcomes

Racial Ideology of Americas Essay

In the period from 1500 to 1830, racial stereotypes were prominent in the regions of Latin America/Caribbean and wedlock America and they had a tremendous effect on society, especially societies with multiple ethnicities. The racial ideologies of these regions can be seen through the treatment of native peoples and the treatment of slaves. However, because of the strong influence of differing European nations,and their differing standards, contrasting societal effects can be seen.When the Europeans discovered and settled the New World and Latin America their ideology of European dominance and superiority had a direct effect on the natives of these regions. In North America, the Native Americans were often oppressed or forced to live on a confined plot of ground of land. The Europeans would often devise treaties with the Native Americans on where there territorial boundaries were and where the settlers were not allowed to intrude.The European governments did not enforce this, so ev entually all of these treaties were broken. This shows that the Europeans did not bear upon the natives claims to the land as legitimate and that they did not have any rights to the land. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the natives were enslaved and forced into servitude and labor. The dominant European racial ideology withal fueled the slave trade in both North America and Latin America.The slave trade revolved around slave ships that would transport mob of Africans to the colonies to increase productions. The slave trade grew in the periods from 1500 to 1830 because slaves became cheaper to buy then hiring indentured servants who would work only a certain amount of years and then be free when their debt was paid off where as a slave is kept for life, unless they are sold. The slaves were bought, sold, and treated wish property, not human beings.The colonists, were those who traveled from Europe to the Americas or those born in America who had come from European descent im plemented the total colonization of North America and Latin America and the Caribbean. The colonies in North America were predominantly British and had a desire to become like their mother country. This united the colonists and so they did not discriminate against each other like they discriminated against the Native Americans and African slaves.This contrasts the predominantly Spanish dominated colonies because they had no sense of unity. The Spanish racial ideology prompted those in power, the royal sangres azules, and the commoners, translated into discrimination within the colonist populations. The colonists born in Spain were considered better than those who born in Americas, even if you came two fully Spanish parents. Those who were of mixed blood , who were children of native and Spanish parents were even lower.

Malaysia is rapidly developing towards being an industrial country

Chapter 1Introduction1.0 BackgroundMalaysia is quickly developing towards being an in framerial narrate. Many industries overmuch(prenominal) as concentrated and light industries, scant(p) and average industries and backyard industries wealthy person been turning in the resist 10 quondam(a) ages. The admission in industrial and country activities has created a sun rhytidoplasty(prenominal) demand in lodging, urbanisation, transit and medicine as the population addition. All these will lend to environmental jobs particularly contamination due to the assemblage of wondering(a) chemicals such as sonorous metals in environment.Environmental contaminant has become a major issue that requires immediate action as it whitethorn effectuate homo wellness. Pollution can take many signifiers such as piss and disperse out that we breathe. Urbanization in developed and development state, civilisation and industrialization crop the state of affairs of the environment worsene d as such that there is no more(prenominal) safe topographic sharpen to populate. From the chemical skill lexicon, pollution can be define as an unwanted alte dimensionn in the physical, chemical, or biologic features of the natural environment, brought nearly by adult anthropoid s activities. It may be harmful to human or non living things. basic eachy there argon two chief categories of pollutants which argon biodegradable which style it can be rendered harmless by natural executions and need hence do no last injury if adequately dispersed or set such as sewerage. An an anformer(a)(prenominal)(prenominal) type is nonbiodegradable which can non be break uping by microbic activity. For illustration gruelling metals such as contract, DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons use as pesticides, which finally accumulate in the environment and may be concentrated in nutrient ironss.Pollution also can be describes as the debut of foreign substances into the biosphere. It may push the dirt, rivers, seas, or the ambiance. The pollutants that be released from the anthropogenetic activities such as agricultural industries, unfastened combustion, solid waste disposal, sewerage intervention workss and transit produce risky and toxicant pollutants such as SO2, NOx, sedate metals and hydrocarbon compounds that effects non scarce human but besides both workss and laud beings that can do decease. Some of these risky pollutants find their manner into the human system through the nutrient web. They may undergo biotransformation, metamorphosis and excreted without the hazard of perniciousness depending on the chemical features of the compound and the dosage in human organic structure. still, some of the pollutants resist chemical and biological transmutation and accumulate in the tissues, including the nervousnesss, to do toxicity. The inauspicious effects of these pollutants on the nervousnesss system acquaint rise to neurotoxicity. Rana et al. , ( 2004 ) Katranitsas et al. , ( 2003 ) prep atomic number 18 that there is grounds that increase exposure to toxic elements in devil dog and earthman beings is holding inauspicious toxicological effects. thus threatening metals pollution become serious issues that must been concerned.Unlike other pollutants such as scratchy oil hydrocarbons and domestic and municipal litter which may visibly construct up in the environment, undertone metals in the environment may upset up unnoticed to toxic stratums. By and large, human wellness jobs associated with feeling metal taint have been well- advancedlighted in the literature. In malice of the comparatively low degree of industrial activity in less developed parts there is however a high potency of toxic sarcoid metal pollution. The scattering of metals in the environment is a emergence of natural procedures ( vents, eroding, spring H2O, bacterial activity ) and anthropogenetic activities ( fossil fuel burning, industrial and agricultura l procedures ) ( Florea and Busselberg, 2006 ) .Heavy metals such as arsenic lead, Cu, Cd, or Zn atomic number 18 released from the Earth s crust into the environment through anthropogenetic beginnings such as non-ferrous metal perseverance or non-renewable energy ingestion. These substances can do major harm to human wellness or to ecosystem stableness til now at low concentrations in dirts. To acquire the better of this issue, many states have taken legion put onprises particularly the developed state. For illustration, in 2001 the European Union council signed the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary origin Pollution on Heavy Metals ( Europa, 2007 ) . Therefore there argon many manner actings to quantify and measure the comportment of these substances. One of them is biological used.The application of biological signifiers as the indexs is the best ways to measure the environmental military position. Harmonizing to ( Szczepaniak and Biziuk, 2003 Bargagli, 1998 ) , in order to observe, measure and minimise the effects, there has been an accent in the purpose of natural bioindicators to supervise atmospheric quality in both urban and rural environments. Examples of bioindicators are lichens, fish, and mosses.One of the bioindicators that can be used is lichens. Lichens are widely cognise as an first-class index to measure our environment. Lichens drama importance functions to forest communities. Lichens re drink a rare beginning of readily digestible nutrient at all propagation of twelvemonth and in diverse environments due to their ability to last in ut well-nigh clime status. more than by and large, lichens act as innovator species in waste or disturbed environments their growing on stone surfaces is one of the primary phases of dirt formation in such environments ( Brakenhielm, 1998 Cooper, 1953 in Dawson, 2008 ) . Lichens are little, non-vascular workss domicil of a fungus and an alga turning together in one tissue. Normally li chens are open on the bark of trees, or the caribou lichens turning on the land, but many other species grow on stones, fencings, roofs, gravestones, and other objects. The feature of lichen that sensitive to the alterations of the surrounding makes them as an first-class bioindicators and biomonitors for air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide pollution, since they pull in their H2O and messageive foods chiefly from the ambiance instead than from the dirt.A batch of surveies towards lichens had been do related to pollution particularly air pollution in around Europen states and North America Asia. During the period 1973-1988, al some 1500 documents were published on the effects of air pollution on lichens Richardson ( 1988 ) cited in Ahmadjian ( 1993 ) , and many general reappraisals of lichens and air pollution have been compiled ( Ahmadjian, 1993 ) . The statute law nigh air quality that they made has been base on ballss through out the states particularly in developin g states where air pollution is bad. In Malaysia, several surveies has been conducted ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) to find the heavy metals pollution degree utilizing lichen at difference topographic points. From the research, they prove out that the sensitiveness of lichens towards heavy metals deepen from each species. roughly of species of lichen have a broad geographical distribution, which allows for a survey of pollution covering broad countries and its high capacity to envelop up metals ( Burton, 1986 ) . Hutchinson et al. , ( 1996 ) stated that lichens do non hold seasonal fluctuations and therefore collection of pollutants can happen all year-round. Lichens and mosses normally have considerable length of service, which led to their usage as long-run planimeters of atmospheric bank deposit ( Sloof, 1993 ) . The benefits of utilizing lichens as quantitative biological proctors of air metal deposition comparison to conventional air trying techniques rise from that lichens a re present in most tellurian home grounds, are perennial, cheap and easy reproduced ( Baffi et al. , 2002 ) .1.1 Problem statementNowadays the degree of heavy metals in the environment increasing twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours as the mankind becomes much more developed. This is because the uncontrolled released of heavy metals leads to the pollution due to the inordinate anthropogenetic activities. The uninterrupted agitate of heavy metals into inland and coastal H2O make the state of affairs worsens. Anthropogenetic activities such as excavation, smelting and agribusiness have locally increased the degrees of heavy metals such as Cd ( Cd ) , Cu ( Cu ) , Cr ( Cr ) , lead ( Pb ) , arsenic ( As ) and nickel ( Ni ) in dirt up to unsafe degrees for workss, animate beings and human existences. Although with the wood around us, the position of heavy metals level rather important as the consequence of human day-to-day activities, heavy population country near the wood and beside s an increasing of the transit. These activities give inauspicious consequence to the life being as they enter into the environment. opposite than that the ordinances provided by Malayan authorities which is the Environmental Quality Act 1974 by Department of Environment, still non to the blanket(a) been forced due to the engagement other parties such as local authorization to take action when the degree of pollutants exceed the standard given particularly in coastal country. This is due to the contrary section have different duties. Nevertheless these parties can be work together to make a better life. Meanwhile due to the deficiency of surveies towards the lichens in our state, the informations obtained can assist the local authorization in determination devising procedure therefore maintained the quality. Besides that, it would assist to do an appraisal about the environmental status and possibly to better environmental quality position.1.2 ObjectiveThis survey was carried out in order to accomplish as the followerssTo quantify the heavy metals present in lichens.To measure the degree of heavy metals in lichens.To set up the correlativity of heavy metals pollutants in lichens with the environing environment.1.3 Significant of surveyBy cognizing that different species has different sensitiveness towards heavy metals, it allow breaking spirit about the sensitiveness of lichens towards heavy metals at environing environment. The presence or absences of species in countries can give better understanding about the sensitiveness of lichens towards the pollutants. The information obtained besides can be used to measure the toxicology effects non merely to the lichens but besides on homo. Heavy metals can genuinely toxic if the degree of the pollutants higher(prenominal) than the limited given. The informations besides can make the distribution forms of lichens at that topographic point. The pollution degree and position topographic point besides can be determ ined. This survey provides a mention record for carry oning farther biomonitoring surveies.1.4 Thesis organisationThe finding of heavy metals in lichens as bioindicators is a thesis base on old research in different trying location. Overall, this thesis consists of five chapters which are to help in understanding and rest to form through authorship procedure. The chapters in this thesis have been forming as followsChapter 2 by and large discuss about the used on lichens as bioindicators. In this chapter, it besides has detailed account on the morphology of lichens that race of import function in accumulate heavy metals. It besides include the biography on the scientific research on lichens, the important function on absorb the heavy metals and the effects of air pollution and metal pollution towards lichens.Chapter 3 is more concentrating on research methodological psycho outline. In this destiny, it is divided into three parts which are the description on country of survey, t rying aggregation and in conclusion laboratory analysis which is the process to find heavy metals utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer ( ICP-MS ) .Chapter 4 is concentrating on the consequences obtained and treatment. In this chapter, it discuss about the informations obtained after see by ICP-MS. It besides include the statistical tools to analyse the smallness of the informations obtain in order to hold a good information. It besides states the consequences and the informations reading surrounded by the proves.Chapter 5 is the last chapter which is the decision. In this tract, it concludes for the self-colored chapter in the thesis. It related on the aim of the survey including the recommendation to better the research on lichens.Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 BioindicatorsBioindicators, besides cognise as biomarkers, are tools that used in ecology, physiology, environmental microbiology and other subjects, to observe strain and other environmental conditio ns environing beings. USEPA stated that biological index species are totally environmental indexs as they offer a signal of the biological status in a watershed as they reveal the pollution position from cartridge holder to clip. The presence of this species can give an early model of pollution or alloy in an ecosystem every flake good as aid nurture critical resources. Bioindicators differ from biomonitoring. Bioindicators are really groups or types of biological resources that can be used for designation and qualitative finding of homo generated environmental factors Tonneijk and Posthumus ( 1987 ) cited in Conti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) while biomonitors are being chiefly used for the quatitative finding of and can be classified as being sensitive or accumulative ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) .Bioindicators are divided into two types. First, accretion indexs which are shop pollutants without any apparent alterations in their metamorphosis. some other one is response indexs which is react with cell alterations or microscopical symptoms of harm when taking up even little sums of risky substances. The application of bioindicators in measuring air pollution is much cheaper compared with other methods as Fuga et al. , ( 2008 ) notable that beside low cost, they besides easy for sampling, and the possibility of supervising broad countries. The application of workss as bioindicators has been conducted for many old ages to observe environmental alterations ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . Harmonizing to Chandra and Sinha ( 2000 ) workss are extremely potent and sensitive tools for finding and foretelling environmental emphasiss. Mosss, lichens and Fungis are the illustrations type of workss that normally used to bespeak the environmental alterations. However a lichen species was more resilient than a moss species in two exposure experiments fashion intoing hint metal pulmonary tuberculosis affecting grafts into urban environments ( Tretiach et al. , 2007 ) .2 .2 LichensLichens consists of a fungus, cognize as the mycobiont, and a photosynthetic being, a green alga or blue-green algae species, the photobiont. Both of them are symbiosis as they rely each other where the algae and fungi give benefits each other ( Hawksworth and Rose, 1976 ) . The symbiotic action among the mycobiont ( -s ) and the photobiont ( -s ) , signifier thallus which the organic structure of lichens through a procedure of symbiogenesis ( Margulis and Barreno, 2003 ) are stable micro-ecosystems as a consequence mutualism procedure make these non-linear belongingss to be strangely effectual early warning indexs of alterations dues to the impact of worlds on ecosystems ( Barreno, 2003 ) . Poikolainen ( 2004 ) stated that the fungous constituent normally an Ascomycetes fungus, and a green alga ( Chlorophyceae ) and/or bluish green alga ( Cyanobacteriae ) is the algal constituent.About 19 % of all Fungis are lichenized ( Lutzoni et al. , 2001 Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ) . More than 98 % of lichenized fungous species belong to phylum Ascomycota, others are from orders of phylum Basidiomycota and some to Mitosporic Fungi ( Hawksworth et al. , 1995 Tehler, 1996 ) . Most of the photobiont spouse is form by green alga ( Chlorophyta Lewis and McCourt, 2004 ) , merely approximately 10 % with blue-green algae, and 3 % with both green alga and blue-green algae ( Hawksworth et al. , 1995 Honegger, 1996 ) .The fungous constituent is responsible for taking up H2O and minerals, and the algal constituent, which grows in the center of the fungous mycelia, for photosynthesis in order to feed both spouses as it has chlorophyll that is able to devour sunshine, produce indispensable foods. Most lichen species obtain their foods from moisture and dry deposition ( Garty, 1993 ) . Some mycobionts can besides alter their photosynthesizing spouse from green alga to cyanobacterium and frailty versa and this leads to alterations in thallus morphology ( Oksanen, 2006 ) . This conduct was suggested to be due to an environmental version and related to ecological compatibility of the photobiont ( Honegger, 1996 Stenroos et Al, 2003 ) .The categorization of lichens depends on thallus winding. There are three growing signifiers of lichens which are Crustose ( sour ) , foliaceous ( leafy ) and fructicose ( shrubby ) ( Swinscow and Krog, 1988 ) . Growth form irregular the grade of physical contact and orientation of the lichen with its substrate every bit good as the sum of uninterrupted surface country exposed to airborne deposition therefore it should hold a direct impact on both the interception and consumption of airborne and substrate available elements by lichens ( Samuel et al, 2002 ) .Basically lichens can be found in tellurian home grounds, although a few can last invariably below the surface of H2O, such as Peltigera hydrothyria. They can populate on bark ( epiphytic ) , stones ( epilithic ) , or dirt ( terricolous ) and can even turn inwa rdly the upper part of stones ( endolithic ) , peculiarly in exposed limestones and sandstones. In the Torrid Zones they can besides colonise foliages ( foliicolous ) ( Nash, 2008 ) . Lichens frequently grow in home grounds with outcome visible radiation, waterlessness, or temperature, which are less favourable or unsuitable for higher workss ( Vrablikova et al. , 2006 ) . Although lichens are attached to the bark or perforate a short distance, they are non parasite which is non come ining the inner bark where nutrient is transported, and therefore do non devour the tree of nutriment. Lichens depend on mineral foods from moisture and dry deposition on the works surface in the signifier of soluble salts and atoms, for their growing and metamorphosis ( Loppi and Pirintsos, 2003 ) .Lichens can widen the utmost status, slow-growing, beings that maintain a reasonably unvarying morphology in clip and are extremely dependent on the environing for foods ( Loppi and Pirintsos, 2003 ) . Seve ral research workers such as Chiarenzelli et Al. ( 1997 ) have analyse the accretion of heavy metals in Arctic tundra ecosystem at the Otter Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada.2.2 Lichens as bioindicatorsSince lichens are the most widely used biomonitors in tellurian environments ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) , therefore they can observe and supervise a tonss of pollutants such as SO2, HF, metals, high N deposition, organic pollutants and radionuclides. Most surveies utilizing lichens as index species of air pollution peculiarly acerb rain, fertilisers, sulfur and N oxides, and metals, has been documented in 1000s of scientific documents ( Henderson, 2000 ) .Hawksworth and Rose ( 1976 ) describe that in the early 1860 s lichens were recognized as contingent indexs of air pollution in Britain and Europe. Since so, lichens have played outstanding functions in air pollution surveies throughout the universe because of their sensitiveness to different ball upeous pollutants, peculiarly su lfur dioxide. More than a century ago William Nylander ( 1866 ) , a European scientist, found that lichens in the countryside around Paris were non found inside the metropolis. He investigated the state of affairs and found out that the lichens had been quickly decreasing, killed by pollutants. Since of those findings, an extended research have been conducted in many countries ( Barkman, 1958 De Wit, 1976 Hawksworth, 1971 ) cited in Wolterbeek et al. , ( 2003 ) .Other than that, several researches have examine the relationship amid lichens and hint elements in different geographic country ( Loppi and Bonini, 2000 Garty, 2001 Carreras and Pignata, 2002 Yenisoy-Karakas and Tuncel, 2004 Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 Bergamaschi et al. , 2004 ) . Hundreds of surveies have been published on the effects of sulfur dioxide, N compounds, ozone, heavy metals and other atmospheric pollutants on the morphology and physiology of lichens since the 1950 s ( Richardson, 1992 Garty, 2000 ) . T hese surveies have chiefly been experimental.Lichens have besides been employed among other things as accretion indexs of heavy metals ( Freitas, 1994 ) every bit good as sulfur and N compounds ( Sochting, 1995 ) derived from industrial activities and power production in a infinite figure of surveies carried out in the milieus of emanation beginnings. Therefore research related to the pollution based on lichen as an indexs being used widely. This is because there were certain features on lichens that make them an first-class bioindicators for finding the presence of the primary pollutants such as sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) , fluoride, acerb precipitation, ozone and metals ( Hutchinson et al. , 1996 ) . Several regional and even national studies have been carried out on the relationship between the happening of epiphytic lichen and atmospheric pollutants ( Poikolainen et al. , 2000 ) .Other than that, Soderstrom ( 1988 ) , Lesica et al. , ( 1991 ) , Esseen et a l. , ( 1997 ) cited in Humphrey et al. , ( 2002 ) supported that epiphytic nonvascular plants and lichens are of import constituents of biological diverseness in natural boreal and temperate woods. Most of species of lichen have a broad geographical distribution, which allows for a survey of pollution covering broad countries and its high capacity to roll up metals Burton ( 1986 ) cited in Mokhtar et al. , ( 2006 ) . Hutchinson et al. , ( 1996 ) stated that lichens do non hold seasonal fluctuations and therefore accretion of pollutants can happen all old ages. They cover 8 % of the land surface, including some of the most utmost environments on Earth Larson ( 1987 ) cited in Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) . Lichens and mosses normally have considerable length of service, which led to their usage as long-run planimeters of atmospheric deposition ( Sloof, 1993 ) .Lichens are really sensitive to break in naturality ensuing from air pollutants, chiefly sulfur dioxide and heavy metals ( Nimi s et al. , 2002 ) . Their alone characteristic which is do non hold outer water-resistant bed of tissue to forestall gases and atoms that affect their metamorphosis. This characteristic besides indicate that little atoms in the ambiance can be absorbed do them most of import bioindicator ( Bennet, 2006 ) . Besides that, because of the failing of its cuticles enables moist air to be absorbed through its surface. Metallic elements which are absorbed along with the moist air are dissolved in it ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . Trace metals from air borne atoms can be absorbed by lichen and so roll up and saturated the metals. This is because their construction and anatomy ( Hutchinson et al, 1996 ) do them able to uptake the pollutants.The diminishing of some lichen diverseness due to the increasing in air pollution and environmental emphasis ( Svoboda, 2010 ) indicate that the environmental status in that part is polluted. Pollution signifiers such as forest atomization ( Fritz et al. , 2 008 Hedenas and Ericson, 2008 Ranius et al. , 2008 ) give premium public-service corporation as indexs of naturalist.2.3 Biological public entryLichens can be considered and analyzed in footings of their morphology, histology, ecology and physiology, in short or long-run periods of clip ( Ahmadjian and Hale, 1973 ) . Several researches Garty et al. , ( 1998 ) has been studied on the lichen s biological public presentation such as measurings on growing rate, productiveness, generative capacity, malformation, stain, chlorophyll content, membrane unity, respiratory activity, ionic content, geographical happening, substrate-related distributional restrictions, or H2O dealingss. Habitat debasement and loss ( Groom et al. , 2006 ) , habitat atomization ( Bergamini et al. , 2005 ) , overuse ( Upreti et al. , 2005 ) , species invasions ( La Greca and Stutzman, 2006 ) , and clime alteration is the chief menaces to the biodiversity of lichens.For illustration, overbrowsing of the Cladonia heath by increasing caribou populations in Scandinavia and Alaska has long been recognised as an of import factor doing the terrible diminution of lichens, which might go a serious job in caribou earth ( Suominen and Olfosson, 2000 ) . Climate alteration is likely to hold dramatic effects on distribution and copiousness of lichen populations ( Ellis and Coppins, 2007 Ellis et al. , 2007 ) . Yet another menace which is specific to lichens and other poikilohydric cryptogams is air pollution, which has led to the terrible diminution of legion species throughout Central Europe ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) .The construction and features of lichens play of import function as they served as the early warning to the pollution. Otnyukova et Al. ( 2007 ) identifies a relationship between deposition, unnatural morphology in Usnea and tissue chemical science, supplying an early indicant of forest diminution.However the biological grading, the reading of symptom function is frequently instead har d Seaward ( 1976 ) cited in Wolterbeek et al. , ( 2003 ) . Due to the addition in size may reflect an addition in generative capacity but may besides merely show an abnormalcy of form or signifier of the primal parts of the thallus. Another ground is the stain might be associated to the general deteriorate but besides reflect hurts from other beginnings such as insect, diseases or chemical sprays. be but non least, alterations in the distribution of species may reflect alterations in air pollution ( Barkman, 1958 De Wit, 1976 Henderson-Sellers and Seaward, 1979 cited in Wolterbeek et al.,2003 ) , but may besides be associated to other environmental parametric quantities ( Henderson-Sellers and Seaward, 1979 ) , such as alterations in humidness or alterations in the handiness of preferent substrates ( De Wit, 1976 Manning and Feder, 1980 ) .2.4 Heavy metalsDetermining concentrations of heavy metals in the environment is an of import portion of understanding biochemical procedures and grade of ecosystem wellness ( Schilling and Lehman, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to USEPA in Private Drinking Water Wells, heavy metals can be define as metallic elements with high denseness, such as, quicksilver Cr Cd, arsenic, and lead. Even at low degrees these metals can damage living things. Once heavy metals get into the environment, whether in little or big measures, they can non be wholly eliminated. They can non to interrupt down or biodegrade and be given to construct up in workss, animate beings, and masses doing wellness concerns. This statement supported by other research workers such as Lenntech ( 2004 ) cited in Duruibe et al. , ( 2007 ) which stated that any heavy metal is toxic or toxicant even at low concentration. However, their denseness is non the most concerns features to be considered but their chemical belongingss ( Duruibe et al. , 2007 ) as they can do important impact to the environment. ( Dembitsky, 2003 ) reported that these toxic substances contribute to a assortment of toxic effects on life beings by nutrient concatenation as they enter into environment.2.5 Beginning of metal pollutionHeavy metals occur in two ways of course or geological and anthropogenetic activities such as industrial wastewaters, fuel production, excavation, smelting procedures, military operations, use of agricultural chemicals, small-scale industries ( including battery production, metal merchandises, metal smelting and overseas telegram coating industries ) , brick kilns and coal burning ( Zhen-Guo et al. , 2002 ) . This statement supported by Dembitsky ( 2003 ) which stated that these tracts are beginnings of heavy metal taint. Other than that Zhang et Al. ( 2009 ) noteworthy that in nature, heavy metals are widely distributed in such ways such as H2O, dirt, air and assorted signifiers of beings at low concentration.Harmonizing to fairfaxcounty ( 2005 ) nowadays roadways and cars are considered to be one of the largest beginnings of heavy metals. The most common heavy metals released from route travel are zinc, Cu, and lead, and at least 90 of the entire metals in route overflow. However lead concentrations, systematically have been diminishing since leaded gasolene was stopped. Other than that, undistinguished sums of other metals, such as Ni and Cd, are besides found in route overflow and fumes.2.6 Metallic elements toxicityPassage metals are infallible by workss ( Akbulut et al.,2008 Sofuoglu, et al.,2008 ) . Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) stated that the elements can be classified into macronutrients or micronutrients and as indispensable and non- immanent. Some metals Co ( Co ) , Cu ( Cu ) , Cr ( Cr ) , and Ni ( Ni ) are really infallible for human in extremely little sums ( Zevenhoven and Kilpinen, 2001 ) . However some elements for illustration quicksilver ( Hg ) , Cd ( Cd ) , lead ( Pb ) , Cr ( Cr ) and arsenic ( As ) , can do pollution and interrupt the environment when their accretions exceed certain degrees even at low c oncentration ( Kennish, 1992 ) .Harmonizing to Jadia and Fulekar ( 2009 ) classified that essential metals which have benefits and of course found are ( Ca, Co, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Se, V and Zn ) but can be toxic when inordinate while non essential metals which are ( Al, As, Au, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, Pd, Pt, Sb, Te, Tl and U ) that can be extremely toxic and can do serious wellness harm when inordinate consumption. Information given by Bowen ( 1979 ) cited in Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) and Markert ( 1996 ) can be utilize for farther general and more elaborate informations on metal essentialness, happening in dirts and workss, toxicity and uptake. Plants have the ability to roll up indispensable metals in different concentration for growing and development ( Jadia and Fulekar, 2009 ) . However workss besides tend to roll up the non-essential metals which have no known biological map ( Djingova and Kuleff, 2000 ) . Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) found that because of the works s meta bolically controlled care of needed degrees of indispensable elements, lichens may demo instead high base-line concentrations for particularly the indispensable elements under low atmospheric handiness conditions.Because of their features which is can non to be brake down, it can do direct toxicity by damaging cell construction ( due to oxidative emphasis caused by reactive O species ) and suppress a figure of cyto blood plasmtic enzymes when the accretion inside works cells above sceptre or optimum degree ( Assche and Clijsters, 1990 ) . Furthermore, it can do indirect toxic effects by replacing indispensable foods at cation exchange sites in workss ( Taiz and Zeiger, 2002 ) . baker ( 1981 ) cited in Jadia and Fulekar ( 2009 ) suggested, that some workss have evolved to digest the presence of big sums of metals in their environment by the undermentioned three ways exclution, inclution and bioaccumulation.2.7 Lichens and surplus of heavy metalsPermeability of the plasma membrane of lichens may change by metals, taking to leakage of ions like K and other solutes ( Grunsveld and Clijsters, 1994 ) . Biomonitors by lichens at specific country has failing as their responses could be changing from those observed in the research lab. This is due to the fact that the lichens are exposed non merely to a individual pollutant but to other mixtures of pollutants which are besides affected by different meteoric conditions ( Carreras et al. , 2005 ) . Although biomonitoring plan on atmospheric heavy metals and advancement in this field has been already reviewed throughout the universe ( Garty, 2001 Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) but in the last few old ages at that place has been researched focused on the physiological and biochemical effects of heavy metal accretion in lichens ( Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) .There are many surveies has been documented sing the effectivity of lichens in stoping atoms non merely from the ambiance but besides from substrate ( Loppi et al. , 1999 Pirintsos et al. , 2006 ) . These atoms may be precipitated onto the lichen surface or trapped in the intercellular infinites of the myelin ( Garty et al. , 1979 cited in Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) and remain unchanged for a long period. Lichen can be harm caused by the presence of other gaseous or particulate pollutants in the environment which can disrupt the physiological procedures involved in the accretion of heavy metals ( Carreras et al. , 2005 ) . However Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) found that because of the atoms deposited and remain unchanged, lichens can stay on and accretion of heavy metals in measures that exceed their physiological demands.Several surveies have been conducted on the accretion of heavy metals in many different species ( Sawidis et al. , 1995 Monaci et al. , 1997 Scerbo et al. , 1999 Loppi et al. , 2002 ) . Some common species such as genera Acarospora, Aspicilia, Lecanora, Lecidea, Porpidia, Rhizocarpon or Tremolecia ( Purvis and Halls, 1996 Back or and Fahselt, 2004 ) associated with heavy metal-rich substrates can digest metals and occur in both contaminated and uncontaminated countries. Other species, nevertheless, are restricted and have a deficiency connexion in distribution reflecting the handiness of suited sites ( Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) .2.7 Accretion of heavy metalsLichens tend to roll up metals from airborne atoms or from dissolved and suspended stuff ( Wolterbeek et al.,2003 ) . In general, five mechanisms have been put frontward with respect to the sopping up of metals in lichens ion exchange, electrolyte sorption, intracellular soaking up, entrapment of atoms that contain metals, redundantcellular and hydrolysis as indicated by uptake surveies with integral lichens ( Richardson, 1995 ) .Accretion of heavy metals in lichens is good documented ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . Lichen tissue analysis likely arose from physiological probes into the consequence of heavy metals on lichen metamorphosis. Experi mental work over the period from 1970-1985 by a group of lichen physiological ecologists, chiefly based at Laurentian University in Sudbury, determined the precise relationship between elemental consumption, storage and lichen metamorphosis ( Richardson and Nieboer, 1983 Richardson and Puckett, 1973 ) . The function of lichens as collector the heavy metals of assorted hint elements in atmospheric deposition, and tissue analyses have efficaciously characterized their spacial and temporal deposition forms has been studied by several research workers such as ( Garty, 2001 cart et al. , 2003 ) .Harmonizing to Baker ( 1983 ) cited in Contti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) there are many factors that influence the accretion of metals of workss such as the handiness of elements, the features of workss such as type of reproduction. Therefore, the grade of allowance account to heavy metals is characteristic of each lichen species ( Carreras and Pignata, 2007 ) . Neiboer et Al. ( 1976 ) indicated a big scope in the elemental consumption of lichens that varied harmonizing to elemental features of the substrate and environmental factors, notably a tenfold addition in metals in relation to distance from smelters. Metallic elements and sulfur dioxide behave otherwise and are expected to hold differing radioactive dust forms nevertheless Rossbach et Al. ( 1999 ) demonstrated a additive correlativity between the element concentration in lichen stuff and the reciprocal of the distance from the emanation beginnings. However, an tinge consideration of topography, substrate and meteoric conditions must be considered to explicate fluctuation.Different species have different ability to absorb considerable sums of heavy metals ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . For illustration Pawlik-Skowronska et Al. ( 2006 ) found that apothecia of Lecanora polytropa accumulated Cu up to 1.3 % ( d.m. ) , about 50 % of which was in an exchangeable signifier. Other than that a few surveies have shown that fo liaceous species by and large had higher component tonss than shrubby species when compile from the same site ( Glenn et al. , 1995 Gough et al. , 1988 Lawrey and Hale, 1981 cited in Clair et al. , 2002 ) .Assorted analytical techniques have been attempted by many research workers to increase experience on the bonding procedure which is interaction between lichen and metal. One of them is electron paramagnetic resonance. Although Conti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) reported that there was missing cognition in understanding the full procedure that responsible in the accretion, but there were new attack late been introduced which is by utilizing microcalorimetric technique with the purpose of obtaining enthalpic measuring informations ( Antonelli et al. , 1998 ) . As a consequence the angle of inclination established a good correlativity between the metal bond and heat content values in metal consumption. For illustration tendency for Evernia Prunastri Pb & gt & gt Zn & gt Cd? Cu? Cr ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) .The algal spouse has been reported to respond more sensitively e.g. , to acidic deposition and heavy metals, and to demo changing accretion of metals depending on the sourness of precipitation ( Tarhanen et al. , 1999 ) . Sporadic dehydration of lichens may besides hold an consequence on the accretion and soaking up of elements ( Puckett, 1988 ) . After a dry period, rainfall may ensue in appreciable rinsing off of atoms and the exchange of cations bound on negatively charged exchange sites on the cell walls and plasma membranes of the cells ( Bargagli, 1998 ) .The rapid, exchangeable procedure of metal adhering to cell walls in metal consumption by lichens has been extensively studied in the research lab ( browned, 1976 Goyal and Seaward, 1982 Nieboer and Richardson, 1981 Nieboer et al. , 1978 cited in Wolterbeek et al. , 2003 ) . Several surveies have been conducted to mensurate the deposition of atmospheric in lichen. France and Coquery ( 1996 ) , for illustration measured deposition of atmospheric lead and compared them to lichen thalline contents from the high Arctic utilizing flameless atomic surface assimilation spectrophotometry. They found that the concentration of 2 ug g-1 dry weights to be the lowest degree found in lichen and established a latitudinal gradient in lead, with a clear form in diminishing Pb concentrations in lichens with increasing latitude throughout Canada.Simple to complex methods for finding the concentration of ions in lichen tissue have been developed for decennaries and it is widely accepted that tissue concentrations in most lichen species shows a precise relationship with deposition of particulate and ambient air concentrations of gaseous pollutants ( Seaward, 1992 ) . Entrapment of atoms contains metals which known as airborne pollutants accumulate in lichens by both moistures and dry deposition ( Nash, 1996 ) . Wet deposition involves any sort of precipitation event that washes airborne a erosols and particles out of the air, while dry deposition involves the settling out of airborne gases or atoms due to the increasing influence of gravitation with diminishing air current velocity ( Knops et al. , 1991 ) . Another beginning of elements such as dirt atoms deposited by windblown on lichen thalli may be accumulated by some lichens. Smaller deposited atoms may go trapped in the lichen thalli of species with big intercellular infinites ( Collins and Farrar, 1978 cited in Clair et al. , 2002.However, when the concentration of metals is high plenty to go toxic, they themselves cause harm to the lichen thalli. As a consequence, several physiological mechanisms of response to air pollutants in lichens are altered, and therefore alter their original sensitiveness or tolerance to gaseous compounds like SO2, NOx, and O3 ( Carreras and Pignata, 2007 ) . These compounds affect the status of lichens and therefore cut down the capacity of lichens to roll up and absorb elements from the ambiance. Heavy metals have besides been found to impact e.g. , the permeableness of the cell membranes of lichens ( Tarhanen et al. , 1996 ) .2.8 Factors considerationHeavy metal content in lichen thallus tends to jump over clip in stages of accretion and subsequent release. Szczepaniak and Biziuk ( 2003 ) listed the factors that influence the metal soaking up in lichens which are acerb precipitation, geographical fluctuations such as height, temporal alterations for illustration seasonal fluctuations, dirt dust, local pollution beginnings, long-range conveyance.Climatic factors likely play of import function in the bioaccumulation of heavy metals, even if this yet ill-defined. Aptroot and new quaver Herk ( 2007 ) provide increasing grounds that clime alteration is an of import factor, partially based on grounds from the algal spouse, much neglected in about all surveies, even though it is normally most sensitive to pollutants. The way in which the pollutants are transported by wind way is most surely fundamental in finding their chief radioactive dust point ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Accretion of heavy metals in lichens is a dynamic procedure. Probe on the effects of extra metals showed that lichens soaked into metal firmness of purposes accumulated metals rapidly within a few hours. Observation on some metals such as Cu showed maximal accretion after 3- 6 H ( Monnet et al. , 2006 ) .In organ transplant surveies indicated that most lichens respond to alterations in atmospheric heavy metals within a few months. It took 2-5 old ages to measure the elements in lichen thalli ( Walther et al. , 1990 ) . Although it expected that the heavy metal content of lichens would increase as the clip addition, but the state of affairs is truly much more complicated. Surveies from Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) showed that contents of several elements in transplanted lichens go up and down during the survey period. This is because the contents of these elements are, at least partially, controlled by physiological procedures and turnover mechanisms ( Bergamaschi et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore, metals can be removed by rainwater which remove polluting atoms on the thallus surface ( Brown and Brown, 1991 ) ensuing in lower content during periods of rain and higher content in the dry season.Other than that, the water-leachable fraction ( deposited plus intercellular ) is by and large assumed to stand for chiefly metals originated from dry deposition, and the elements present in leachates show trenchant temporal forms with concentrations being normally higher in summer than in winter ( Boonpragob and Nash, 1990 ) . However, because lichens are more active metabolically when moisture, winter months are suited to growing and mineral consumption ( Nash and Gries, 1995 ) . Not merely the water-leachable fraction contributes the uneven of the concentration, rainfall besides amply contributes to the entire component content of lichens ( Knops et al. , 199 1 ) . Both of the procedure could bring forth temporal differences in metal contents in malice of changeless pollution tonss, nevertheless the concentrations in lichen thalli chiefly varies harmonizing to sums of incident pollutants. These may bring forth a high sum of biological emphasis, therefore alter element consumption ( Bergamaschi et al. , 2007 ) .Besides that, the clip exposure of lichens transplanted into contaminated countries besides takes a count in the accretion of elements procedure. This is because it influences the verve of thalli and accordingly the active procedures of element consumption. Garty ( 2001 ) noted that in order to find the minimum exposure required to bring forth important alteration, the critical period of exposure remains unknown particularly in the absence of magazine-studies. Short exposure times of 1-3 months are by and large sufficient to impact transplanted lichens. When the exposure is longer, they become saturated with the elements, lose biom ass, surface constructions change and alter physiological public presentation ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) .Other factors are the constructions of lichen itself influence the metal consumption. Their physical features such a surface construction, adhesion and water-holding capacity of thalli besides affect metal accretion in lichens ( Brown and Beckett, 1985 ) . Richardson ( 1995 ) observed that pores and holes on the cerebral mantle, which could pin down atoms or let them to come in inside the thallus, in some species may be pixilated by polymers, likely including lichenins and isolichenins. In contaminated countries, the concentration of hint component in the peripheral ( younger ) of foliaceous lichens may be lower than cardinal ( older ) portion of the thallus because of the greater exposure times experienced ( Bargagli et al. , 1987 cited in Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) . This equivalence has been studied by ( Loppi et al. , 1997 ) , where they used Flavoparmelia caperata th alli from an uncontaminated country of cardinal Italy. They found out that there was extremely variable and contents of several elements ( As, Cr, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Sb ) were similar. Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) suggested that the concentration in cardinal thallus parts were higher because the elements are trapped in the myelin. The indispensable elements for metamorphosis which is Co, Cu, Mo, and Zn were concentrated in the peripheral parts which are the metabolic activities are most active. This suggests that metals can travel from one portion of the thallus to another. However a few surveies have shown that foliaceous species by and large had higher component tonss than shrubby species when unruffled from the same site ( Glenn et al. , 1995 )Altitude seems play of import function for some elements. Study has been done on hypogymnia physodesof on lead ( Pb ) and Cd ( Cd ) concentration ( Kral et al. , 1989 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . He found that concentration of Pb and C d addition as the height increase up to 900-1100 m. at higher height, Cd concentration tend to diminish. Therefore, this species of lichen is suited to measure the metals uptake in position of its high-tolerance capacities ( Jeran et al. , 1996 ) . The ground for this is likely because of the different sum of precipitation, and deposition of more soluble elements ( Kral et al. , 1989 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) .Another factor is related to the species of lichen. Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) noted that different species contain changing sums of metals even at the same palce. It is obvious that the sum of metal contained by lichen is species-dependent. Upreti and Pandey ( 1994 ) described this statement by made comparing between Umbilicaria decussata and U. aprina in Antarctica. From the consequence, they found out that the lichen Umbilicaria decussata collected contained more Pb and Fe than U. aprina in the same site. This difference was attributed to the thin thallus of U. d ecussata which makes for a high ratio of surface country to dry weight as compared with U. aprina.Temporal alterations such as season fluctuation besides contribute to the rate of metal consumption. Basically high concentration of heavy metals found in thallus after summer twenty-four hours. This is due to the increased hydration that consequences from autumn rainfall ( Nieboer et al. , 1978 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Loppi et Al. ( 1997 ) studied the hint component content in Mediterranean clime. As the accretion non being washout, they found out that it is strongly influenced by the dirt dust taint.On a smaller graduated table, lichens turning on stray trees contain higher sums of heavy metal-rich atoms than those in heavy tree bases. Even in single trees, heavy metal accretion depends on the extent of stemflow on a peculiar side and is normally higher close land degree ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) .In general, much polluted countries have merely really tolerant s pecies strip air-areas have a much higher natural diverseness of lichens including several that are highly sensitive to little measures of sulfur dioxide.Chapter 3Methodology2.1 ApparatusThe setup that being used for carry oning the analysis are beaker ( 250 milliliter ) , analytical balance, 0.45 m glass fibre slobber paper, volumetrical flask ( 50 milliliter ) , pipette ( 10ml ) , forceps, Teflon vas, micro-cook digestion system ETHOS 1 Milestone, and extractor tubing ( 15 milliliter ) .2.2 ChemicalsThe chemicals used for this analysis show in table 2.2 circumvent 2.1 list of chemicals usedChemicalsDeionize H2OAzotic acid ( HNO3 ) ( 65 % )Hydrogen Peroxide ( 35 % )Standard solution Standard 3 concentration 10g/ml2.3 Quality Control ( QC ) and Quality Assurance ( QA )Quality confidence and quality control play of import functions for carry oning analysis of research. Both of them must be quest in order to find, calculate and guarantee the systematic and random error in planning , trying, analysis and information reported. Quality control is certain be aftering for the whole research lab operation such as aggregation method and manages informations and samples through criterion processs which help in obtaining a good information, dependable and have high assurance degree. On the other manus, quality control is a set of processs in methodological analysis such as the sampling method and analysis for guaranting that the procedure is under control, which is follow the right standard process guideline. Preciseness and rightness are of import in QC.In this survey, day-to-day public presentation study was used to measure the public presentation of ICP-MS and its surrounding. The study contains the value of strength, the preciseness, sensitiveness, interventions and the background of environing. These standards are of import to cognize the laboratory status and legal document used which can impact the public presentation. From the study obtained, these standards a re under standard given. This indicates that the status of its surrounding is good.Other than that, the standardization curve determines the concentration of the samples whether within the criterion or non. A one-dimensionality cheque was made after the standardization by analyzing the rectification coefficient of the curve. The best for coefficient curve is 1. TableBesides that, the mop out survey is performed to do certain that carry over does non impact readings after the debut of a solution of higher concentration. This can be done in the proper rinse times.2.4 Description of survey countryBukit Larut once known as Maxwell Hill is a upland located 10 kilometer from Taiping, Perak, Malaysia. It was founded in 1888 and is Malaysia s oldest hill resort. Its tallness about 1250 m above sea degree and the temperature is about the same as Fraser s Hill, between 19-25C. Bukit Larut was the wettest portion of the state as it receives the highest rainfall in the state. It was foremost founded by William Edward Maxwell who was appointed as Assistant Resident of Perak in 1875 to function as a cool retreat for colonial functionaries from the humidness of the Lowlandss.Not every bit developed as the popular upland such as Cameroon Highland and Genting Highland, Bukit Larut retain their good environmental quality as nature has been left on its ain to boom bounteously. It is widely known by Green Peace Lover, botanical Scientists, and Flora and Fauna Specialist World Wide. Taiping was a beautiful basin, surrounded by exuberant tropical jungle and exalted hills.Gazetted as a lasting wood modesty in 1910, Bukit Larut s untasted mountain woods are filled with bird life, with squirrels and Gibbons roam around freely. There were 100s and 1000s of rare species of vegetations and zoologies which only to happen anywhere else. This topographic point is popular particularly with nature lovers, bird spectators, twenty-four hours trippers looking for a placid pickup.2.5 Sample r eadyingTwenty samples from different species of lichens were collected utilizing fictile knife to avoid any metals taint. The samples so transferred and sealed in airtight in nothing lock bags. Lichens should non be air-dried in countries subject to taint such as roads and dust degrees are high. The samples need to be rinsed in the first place being dried at room temperature for 24 hours. thence the samples are dried in the oven for 12 hours at temperature 50C and let to be cooled in room temperature. After that, the sample crushed into little pieces and maintain in polyethylene bottle and labeled.2.6 Microwave assisted acid digestionThe sample must be prepared in solution signifier before analysis.The samples were digested utilizing ETHOS 1 Milestone microwave system. This method is applicable to the microwave assisted acerb digestion on biological. The specification of the microwave is show on table 2.2Table 2.2 Specification of ETHOS 1 Milestone microwave systemItemSpecification HNO365 % 70 %Maximal temperature200 CTemperature control ATC detector length180 mMaximal force per unit area30 saloon ( 435 pounds per square inch )Vessel stuffTFM TeflonVessel volume75 milliliterMaximal reagent volume35 milliliterCover stuffTFM TeflonVessel weight? 250 gThis method is applicable for the undermentioned elements in table 2.3Table 2.3 The elements applicable utilizing the microwave assisted systemElementssAluminumCopperSilverAntimonyIronSodiumArsenicLeadStrontiumBoronMagnesiumThalliumBariumMangeneseVanadiumCadmiumMercuryCalciumMolybdenumChromiumNickelCobaltPotassiumCopperSelenium2.6.1 Interventions2.6.1 Gaseous digestion reaction merchandises, really reactive, or volatile stuffs that may make high force per unit areas when heated and may do discharge of the vass with possible loss of sample and analytes. The complete corruption of either carbonates, or C based samples, may do adequate force per unit area to vent the vas if the sample size is greater than 0.25 g.2.6. 2 The utilizations of several digestion reagents that are necessity to either wholly decompose the matrix or to stabilise specific elements may restrict the usage of specific analytical instrumentality methods. Hydrochloric acid is known to interfere with some instrumental analysis methods such as fire atomic soaking up ( FLAA ) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emanation spectroscopic analysis ( ICP-AES ) . The presence of hydrochloric acid may be debatable for graphite furnace atomic soaking up ( GFAA ) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy ( ICP-MS ) . Hydrofluoric acid, which is capable of communicate outing silicates, may necessitate the remotion of extra hydrofluoric acid or the usage of specialised non-glass constituents during instrumental analysis. Method 3052 enables the analyst to choose other decomposition reagents that may besides do jobs with instrumental analyses asking matrix matching of criterions to account for viscousness and chemical differences .2.6.2 Reagent choiceMethod 3052 allows the analyst to choose specific reagents for specific matrices and analytes of involvement. typically 9.0 milliliter of azotic acid are displace in the reaction vas with the sample, and a combination of other reagents such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, or H peroxide may be added based on matrix and peculiar analytes. Hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids are both used as complexation reagents particularly in the presence of silicates and care for metals severally. The usage of H peroxide enhances the oxidization belongingss of azotic acid particularly in the digestion of organics. Nevertheless peroxide may be used in all digestions, nevertheless be cognizant of the increased responsiveness with organic stuffs. The following table suggests reagents and their ratios utilizing method 3052.Table 2.4 reagents and their ratios utilizing method 3052Reagent and volume ( milliliter )MatrixHNO3HafniumHClH2O2Dirt9321Sediment9321Biological9012Botanic90.5 0.51Waste oil90.50.522.7 Sample digestion0.1g sample of lichen is weighed out in the reaction vas. 10 milliliter of azotic acid are so added to each vas. Then 1.0 milliliters hydrogen peroxide is added for complete oxidization of organic affair. Both of the reagents were added in a fume goon to avoid the inspiration of the vapour gas that arises. As for the mention vas or the clean sample, it is the same manner as the readying for sample but non include the sample. The vas is allowed to respond for about one minute prior to sealing the vass to homogenize the sample. The vas decently topographic point in the microwave system harmonizing to the nobleman s recommended specifications and connect appropriate temperature and force per unit area detectors to vass harmonizing to maker s specifications. Both detectors allow monitoring and controlling of both external and internal temperature of all vass in existent clip during the digestion. Vessels should so be placed in the rotor and plac ed in the microwave. After that, the vass heated with 120C for temperature at 850W for one hr. Following, the vas allowed to be cooled before uncap. Carefully, the sample solution so transferred into centrifuge tubing.2.8 Laboratory analysisAfter samples were digested in close vas, the solution so filtered utilizing 0.45m Glass Fiber Whatman filter paper. The solution so transferred into a 50ml volumetric flask and diluted with deionized H2O. Finally, the solution analyzed by utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass spectroscopic analysis ( ICP-MS ) Perkin Elmer Series 200.2.9 Elemental analysis2.9.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MSInductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MS is an analytical technique used for elemental analysis with first-class sensitiveness. The ICP-MS instrument employs argon plasma ( ICP ) as the ionisation beginning and a mass spectrometer ( MS ) , normally with a quadrupole mass filter, to divide the ions produced. It can at the same time mensurate most elements in the periodic tabular array and find analyte concentrations down to the subnanogram per litre, or parts per trillion ( ppt ) , degree. It can execute qualitative, semiquantitative, and quantitative analysis, and reckon isotopic ratios on H2O samples, and in waste infusions and digests.Figure 1 shows a conventional representation of an ICP beginning in an ICP-MS. In an ICP-MS instrument, liquid samples are introduced by a peristaltic pump to the atomizer where a sample aerosol is formed. A double-pass spray chamber ensures that a consistent aerosol is introduced to the plasma. Argon gas is introduced through a series of homocentric vitreous silica tubings, known as the ICP torch. The torch is located in the centre of a wireless frequency ( RF ) spiral. A Tesla spiral ionizes the Ar gas and free negatrons are accelerated by a 27 MHz wireless frequence field. Collisions between the accelerated negatrons and the Ar gas bring forth a high-tempera ture plasma. The sample aerosol is outright decomposed in the plasma to organize analyte atoms, some of which are ionized. The ions produced are extracted from the plasma into the mass spectrometer part, which is maintained at a high vacuity ( typically 10-6 millimeter of mercury ) utilizing differential pumping.The analyte ions are extracted through a brace of openings, about 1 millimeters in diameter, known as the trying cone and the skimmer cone. The analyte ions are so focused by a series of lenses into a quadrupole mass analyser which separates the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio ( m/z ) . Finally, ions are detected utilizing an negatron multiplier, and informations at all multitudes are collected and stored through a computing machine interface. The mass spectrum generated is highly simple. Each elemental isotope appears at a different mass for illustration, 111Cd would look at 111 amu whereas 113Cd would look at 113 amu, with peak strengths straight relative to the initial concentration of each isotope.Despite the easiness of usage and first-class sensitiveness of this method, quantitative ICP-MS measurings are prone to matrix effects and other interventions that must be considered. For illustration, the presence of high chloride degrees in the sample will ensue in the formation of 40Ar35Cl+ , a molecular ion that interferes with the finding of 75As, the merely of course happening isotope of arsenic. Other factors, such as the concluding concentration of an acid used to fade out the sample, can impact the signal. The method of standard add-on can counterbalance for most of these effects, but this is a time-consuming attack and is non suited for big Numberss of samples. Another scheme that may assist is the usage of an internal criterion component with a mass and ionisation energy similar to that of the analyte. A combination of these attacks will be used in this experiment.ICP-MS can observe a really low concentration. Table 2.9.1 show the perception bound for a broad assortment of elements.Table 2.5 sensing bound for elementsComponentsuggested wavelength ( nanometer )appraisal sensing bound ( ug/L )standardization concentration ( mg/L )upper bound concentration ( mg/L )aluminum308.224010100arsenous anhydride193.7& lt Essay Writing profit Fully referenced, delivered on clip, Essay Writing operate.Assignment Writing Service Everything we do is focussed on composing the best possible assignment for your exact demandsTaging Service Our Marking Service will assist you pick out the countries of your work that need betterment.